"Honor your maternal aunt, the palm," said the prophet Muhammad to the Muslims; " for it was created from the clay left over after the creation of Adam (on whom be peace and the blessings of God!)." And again, "There is among the trees one which is preeminently blessed, as is the Muslim among men; it is the palm."

It is in this reverential aspect that the Semitic world has always regarded the date palm; and with sound reason, for its economic importance to the desert dweller as the source of both food and shelter is even greater than that of the coconut palm to the Polynesian. Only in recent years, however, have oriental methods of date-culture been scientifically examined and tested by horticulturists. By far the greater part of this work must be credited to investigators in the United States.

The first modern importation to this country was of palms rooted in tubs, shipped from Egypt to California in 1890. Better methods of shipping offshoots were gradually worked out, and introductions from all parts of the world have been made in ever increasing numbers in the last quarter of a century. Meanwhile, continued study has been given to methods of culture, with the result that the problems of the rooting of offshoots and the ripening of the fruit, which were at first serious sources of loss, have been brilliantly solved, and many others adequately dealt with. This work has been done by the United States Department of Agriculture, the experiment stations of California and Arizona, and many private growers; and any history of the progress of scientific date-culture will certainly record the names of such pioneers as Bruce Drummond, David Fairchild, R. H. Forbes, George E. Freeman, Bernard Johnston, Fred N. Johnson, Thomas H. Kearney, Silas C. Mason, James H, Northrop, F. O. Popenoe, Paul Popenoe, Walter T. Swingle, and A. E. Vinson.

As a result of the work not only of the Americans but of French horticulturists in North Africa and English in Egypt and India, the culture of the date palm is to-day perhaps better understood than that of any other fruit of which this volume treats. There is room, however, for immense improvement in method in practically all of the older date-growing regions, and the introduction of more scientific culture will add greatly to the national wealth in many parts of the Orient.

Such an important date-growing country as Egypt does not now produce enough dates for its own consumption; for although it is a moderate exporter it is still more of an importer of low-grade dates from the Persian Gulf. The markets of North America and Europe have scarcely been touched. Before the Great War the annual importation into New York was thirty to forty million pounds, only five or six ounces a head of the country's population. This is a ridiculously low rate of consumption for a fruit possessing the food-value of the date, and which can be produced so cheaply. There would seem to be no reason why it should not become an integral part of the diet of American families, being eaten not as a dessert or luxury only, but as a source of nourishment. So regarded the market is almost unlimited, and considering how few are the areas available for growing first-class dates, over-production seems hardly possible.

The date palm characteristically consists of a single stem with a cluster of offshoots at the base and a stiff crown of pinnate leaves at the top. It reaches a maximum height of about 100 feet. If the offshoots are allowed to grow, the palm eventually becomes a large clump with a single base.

The plant is dioecious in character, i.e., staminate and pistillate, or male and female, flowers are produced by separate individuals. The inflorescence is of the same general character in both sexes, a long stout spathe which bursts and discloses many thickly crowded branchlets. Upon these are the small, waxy-white, pollen-bearing male flowers, or the greenish female blossoms in clusters of three. After pollination, two out of each three of the latter usually drop, leaving only one to proceed to maturity. Chance development of a blossom that has not been pollinated occasionally gives rise to unfounded rumors of the discovery of seedless dates; genuine seedless varieties have, however, been credibly reported.

The fruit varies in shape from round to long and slender, and in length from 1 to 3 inches. While immature it is hard and green; as it ripens it turns yellow, or, in some varieties, red. The flesh of the ripe fruit is soft and sirupy in some varieties, dry and hard in others. In many kinds, including most of those that ripen early, the sugar-content never attains sufficient concentration to prevent fermentation; the fruit of such varieties must, therefore, be eaten while fresh.

In cultivation about 90 per cent of the male palms are usually destroyed, since they can bear no fruit.

The presence of offshoots around the base is one of the simplest ways to distinguish the date palm, botanically known as Phoenix dactylifera, L., from the wild palm of India (Phoenix sylvestris, Roxb.) and the Canary Island palm (P. canariensis, Hort.); from the latter, which is often grown in the United States for ornamental purposes, it may also be distinguished by its more slender trunk, and by its leaves being glaucous instead of bright green.

Phoenix dactylifera is commonly supposed, following the study of O. Beccari,¹ to be a native of western India or the Persian Gulf region. Evidently, long before the dawn of history, it was at home in Arabia, where the Semites seem to have accorded it religious honors because of its important place in their food supply, its dioecious character, and the intoxicating drink which was manufactured from its sap, and which in the cuneiform inscriptions is called "the drink of life."

Traditions indicate that when the Semites invaded Babylonia they found in that country their old friend the date palm, particularly at Eridu, the Ur of the Chaldees (Mughayr of modern maps) whence Abram set out on his migration to Palestine. It is even suggested that the Semitic immigrants settled at Eridu, which was then a seaport, on account of the presence of the date palms, one of which was for many centuries a famous oracle-tree. Several competent orientalists see in the date palm of Eridu the origin of the Biblical legend of the Garden of Eden.

In very early times the palm had become naturalized in northern India, northern Africa, and southern Spain. From Spain it was brought to America a few centuries ago.

In the last quarter of a century, United States governmental and private investigators have visited most of the date-growing regions of the Old World in search of varieties for introduction into this country, where, in California and Arizona, may now be found assembled all the finest ones that cultivation, ancient and modern, has yet produced.

Orthodox Muslims consider that the dates of al-Madinah, in Arabia, are the best in the world, partly for the reason that this was the home of the prophet Muhammad, who was himself a connoisseur of the fruit. Unbiased judgment, however, commonly yields the palm to the district of Hasa, in eastern Arabia, where the delicious variety Khalaseh grows, watered by hot springs. The district of greatest commercial importance is that centering at Basrah, on the conjoined Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a region which contains not less than 8,000,000 palms and supplies most of the American market.
 
The region around Baghdad, while less important commercially, contains a larger number of good varieties than any other locality known. Date cultivation by Arabs is most scientifically carried on in the Samail Valley of Oman (eastern Arabia), where alone the Fardh dates of commerce are produced. Serious attempts to put the date industry of northwestern India on a sound basis are being made, and with good prospects of success. Western Persia and Baluchistan produce some poor dates and incidentally a few good ones.

In Egypt there are nearly 10,000,000 palms, of which seventenths are widely scattered over Upper Egypt. Most of them are seedlings and practically all are of the "dry" varieties. On the whole, the Egyptian sorts are inferior.

The Saharan oases of Tripoli, Tunisia, and Algeria contain many varieties, of which one (Deglet Nur) is as good as any in the world, and is largely exported not only to Europe but to the United States, where it is marketed under the name of "Dattes Muscades du Sahara." Morocco grows good dates in the Tafila let oases only, whence the huge fruits of one variety (Majhul) are shipped to Spain, England, and other countries. The date palms of southern Spain are seedlings and bear inferior fruit. Elsewhere about the Mediterranean the palm is grown mainly as an ornamental plant.

Intelligent culture of the date palm is now being attempted in some of the dry parts of Brazil, where it promises to attain commercial importance. It is doubtful whether the date will succeed commercially in any moist tropical region, although in isolated instances successful ripening of fruit has been reported in southern India, Dominica (British West Indies), Zanzibar, and southern Florida.

A large area in northern Mexico, not yet developed, is undoubtedly adapted to this culture; but experimental attempts with it on the Rio Grande in Texas have been abandoned. Arizona and California offer the best fields for date growing in the United States, and in the Coachella Valley of California (a part of the Colorado River basin) conditions are particularly favorable. Residents of this valley are not exceeding the truth in asserting it to be the center of scientific date-growing at the present time.

Dates consist mainly of sugar, cellulose, and water. An average sample of fruits on the American market will show in percentages:¹ carbohydrates 70.6 per cent, protein 1 .9 per cent, fat 2.5 per cent, water 13.8 per cent, ash (mineral salts) 1.2 per cent, and refuse (fiber) 10.0 per cent. Cane-sugar is found in dates; in a few varieties this is partly or wholly inverted by the time the fruit is fully ripe.

A diet of dates is obviously rich in carbohydrates but lacking in fats and proteins. It is, therefore, by no accident that the Arabs have come to eat them habitually with some form of milk. This combination makes an almost ideal diet, and some tribes of Arabs subsist on nothing but dates and milk for months at a time.

By Arabs, as well as by Europeans, the date is commonly eaten uncooked. Unsalted butter, clotted cream, or sour milk is thought to "bring out the flavor" and render the sugar less cloying. The commonest way of cooking dates is by frying them, chopped, in butter.

For native consumption around the Persian Gulf and in India, immature dates are boiled and then fried in oil. Jellies and jams are made from dates, and the fruit is also preserved whole. Again, they may be pounded into a paste with locusts (grasshoppers) and various other foodstuffs. The soft kinds are tightly packed into skins or tins, when they are easily transported and will keep indefinitely.

Various beverages are made by pouring milk or water over macerated dates and letting slight fermentation take place. The sap of the plant provides a mild drink resembling coconut milk, which when fermented becomes intoxicating. From cull dates a strongly alcoholic liquor is distilled, which, flavored with licorice or other aromatics, becomes the famous (or rather perhaps, infamous) arrak, of which many subsequent travelers have confirmed the verdict of the sixteenth-century voyager Pedro Teixeira, himself probably no strict water-drinker, who said of it, "This is the strongest and most dreadful drink that was ever invented, for all of which it finds some notable drinkers."

Cultivation

While the date palm grows luxuriantly in a wide range of warm climates, it is, for commercial cultivation, adapted only to regions marked by high temperature combined with low humidity. Properly speaking, it belongs to the arid subtropical zone. A heavy freeze will kill back the leaves, but the plant may nevertheless be as healthy as ever in a year or two. Thus, date palms have withstood a temperature of only 5° above zero and have borne satisfactory crops in subsequent years. Ellsworth Huntington speaks of seeing the date palm in Persia where twenty inches of snow lay on the ground; many generations of natural selection in such an environment would doubtless produce a hardy race, but such a region would scarcely be thought adapted to commercial date-growing.

At the other climatic extreme, the date palm apparently finds no limit, being at its best where the summer temperature stays about 100° for days and nights together. The combination of warm days with cool nights is unsatisfactory; unless there is a prolonged season during which high temperatures prevail night and day, the best varieties of dates will not ripen successfully.

Humidity is an important factor with many varieties. Dates coming from the Sahara usually demand a dry climate; yet the Coachella Valley in California has sometimes proved too dry, and the fruit has shriveled on the tree unless irrigation was given while it was ripening. Persian Gulf and Egyptian varieties will endure more humidity, since they come from the seacoast or near it. Dew at night or rain coming late in the season when the dates are softening is almost ruinous to the crop, for which reason dates cannot be produced satisfactorily in some parts of Arizona. In regions of India where the summer rains begin in July, it has been possible to bring dates to maturity before the rains arrive.

In general, the best varieties require: (1) a long summer, hot at night as well as in the daytime; (2) a mild winter, with no more than an occasional frost; (3) absence of rain in spring when the fruit is setting; and (4) absence of rain or dew in the fall when the fruit is ripening. In regions lacking any of these characteristics, date-growing will be profitable commercially only if special care is taken to secure suitable varieties and to develop, by experiment, proper methods of handling them.

Date palms grow well in the stiff clays of the Tigris-Euphrates delta, in the adobe soils of Egypt, in the sand of Algeria, and in the sandy loam of Oman and of California. No one type of soil can be asserted to be necessary. Thorough drainage and aeration of the soil are desirable, but even in these regards the palm will stand considerable abuse, and is found to grow fairly well in places where the ground-water level is comparatively near the surface. Naturally, however, the palm responds to good treatment as do other plants. On the whole, it is probably best suited on a well-drained sandy loam.

The palm's tolerance of alkali has been noted from very early times, and has led Arab writers to believe that it throve best in alkaline soil. This is unlikely. Dates can indeed be grown successfully in ground the surface of which is white with alkaline efflorescence, provided the lower soil reached by the roots is less salty; but it is probable that the limit of tolerance is somewhere about 3 per cent of alkalinity, and the grower who looks for the best results should not plant on soil whose total alkaline content exceeds one-half of 1 per cent. Naturally, old date palms will stand more alkali than young ones. It should be noted that the so-called black alkali, consisting of carbonates of sodium and potassium, is more harmful than the more or less neutral chlorids, sulfates, and nitrates of sodium, potassium, and magnesium which go by the name of white alkali.

If the irrigating water is free from alkalinity, it will, of course, help to counteract any alkali present in the soil; whereas the grower who needs to irrigate with brackish water must plant his palms in fairly alkali-free soil. Desert landowners sometimes calculate that soil which is too salty for anything else is good enough for a date plantation. This is short-sighted reasoning. Date-growing is, when rightly conducted, so profitable that it is worth giving the best conditions available, and the wise grower will plant his palms in his best soil. The ground should be tested to a depth of six or eight feet to determine its alkali-content, particularly if there is salt evident on the surface. Unless at least one stratum of alkali-free soil is found not far from the surface, the ground should not be used for date palms.

It is the custom in the United States to plant date palms 50 to the acre. The grower with plenty of land may find that 40 to the acre (33 feet apart each way) is more convenient. Arabs plant them much closer but do not cultivate their plantations frequently. The question of spacing is affected both by the nature of the soil and by the variety planted; according to Bruce Drummond, such kinds as Saidi and Thuri give the best results if spaced 35 or 38 feet apart.

Drummond gives the following advice about planting:
"The rooted offshoot when ready for transplanting should be pruned from three to five days before removing from the frame. The new growth should be cut back to one-half the original height, leaving from three to five leaf stubs to support the expanded crown of leaves. The holes in the field should be 3 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. deep, with from 12 to 16 in. of stable manure placed in the bottom of each, with 6 in. of soil on top, then irrigate thoroughly. The rooted palm when removed from the nursery should carry a ball of earth large enough to protect the small fibrous roots from exposure to the sun or dry winds. The average depth for planting should be 16 in., but this may be varied somewhat with the size of the shoot. In any case, the depth should be as great as can be without danger of covering the bud."
"It is not advisable to transplant rooted offshoots later than June. April and May are considered the best months of the entire year for the transplanting of either young or old date palms."
"In southern California, where the dry winds occur from March to June, the transplanted palms should be irrigated thoroughly every week; in sandy soil two irrigations a week should be given until new strong growth is established."

Arabs usually follow the basin method of irrigation, and it has been satisfactory in many other parts of the world. The most skillful American growers who irrigate in basins make them 15 feet square and a foot deep, filling them with a loose mulch of straw or stable manure.

Most American growers, however, prefer to irrigate in furrows, and use no mulch. The function of the mulch in reducing evaporation is covered by giving a thorough cultivation with a surface cultivator or spring-toothed harrow as soon as the ground has dried out enough to be workable. This involves cultivation of the ground every week or two.

Adequate fertilization of the soil is absolutely necessary in order to make date palms produce fruit as heavily as commercial growers desire and at the same time yield well in offshoots. Nitrogen-gathering cover-crops are much in favor, sesbania or alfalfa being preferred in California. The long roots of the latter are useful to break up any hardpan or layer of hard silt which may be present. Many growers plant garden-truck between the rows of palms, especially while the latter are young and making no financial return.

The soil in which date palms are usually grown is of a kind that benefits by the incorporation of rough material, and stable manure is, therefore, the fertilizer of first choice. Wheat-straw or similar loose stuff is frequently added with advantage. An annual application of fertilizer is required in most localities, and if the soil is sandy the grower must be more liberal. For palms producing offshoots, half a cubic yard a year is advised; for older palms a full yard is desirable: both in addition to such cover-crop as the grower may select.

In regard to irrigation, it is to be borne in mind that the soil must be kept moist during the entire year, and that the roots of the palm go deep. The character of the soil must be carefully and experimentally studied before the grower can be certain that he has arrived at the correct method for irrigation. The amount of water that the palm can stand in well-drained land is strikingly illustrated in the great plantings around Basrah, where fresh water is backed into the gardens by tidal flow, so that there are two automatic irrigations each day throughout the year.

In the Coachella Valley, with furrow irrigation, a twentyfour-hour flow each twelve days from April to November has generally been satisfactory, although in many soils weekly irrigation is required. During the winter the rainfall usually suffices. Each application of fertilizer must be followed promptly by several irrigations.

Pruning is not so important with date palms as with many fruit-trees. Dead leaves should be removed from young palms, and if the top growth is heavy the two lower rows of leaves may be removed when the palm is four years old. Regular pruning should begin about the sixth year, after which one row of leaves is usually removed at each midwinter. Drummond advises that "the leaves should not be pruned higher than the fruit stems of the former crop, which will leave about four rows of leaves below the new fruit stems, or approximately 30 to 36 expanded leaves."

Propagation

The date palm can be propagated in only two ways: by seed, and by the offshoots or suckers which spring up around the base or sometimes on the stem of the palm until it attains an age of ten to twenty years.

Seedlings are easily grown, but offer little promise to the commercial grower. Half of the plants will be males, and among the females there will be such a wide variation that no uniformity of pack or quality can be secured. In regions with a large proportion of seedling palms, such as Spain and parts of Egypt, there is practically no commercial date-culture. Most growers in California plant a few seedlings for windbreak or ornamental purposes. These yield a supply of males, but males can be secured better by growing offshoots from male palms of known value.

The multiplication of the date palm, therefore, is reduced in practice to the propagation of offshoots, and skill or lack thereof in this regard will determine largely the grower's success or failure at the outset.

In California at the present time the yield of offshoots is almost as valuable as that of fruit, and growers, therefore, desire to secure as many offshoots of their best varieties as possible. For this purpose ample fertilization and irrigation must be supplied. After the fourth or fifth year of a palm's life, the owner can usually take at least two offshoots a year from it for a period of ten years. The best size for offshoots at removal is when they weigh from ten to fifteen pounds (say 5 to 6 inches, is greatest diameter). The best season for the purpose is during February, March, or April.

Four or five days before the offshoots are to be removed from the mother-palm, their inner leaves should be cut back one-half and the outer leaves two-thirds of their length. It will be well worth while to have a special chisel made for removing offshoots. It should have a cutting bit of the best tool steel, 5 inches wide by 7 inches long, one side flat, the reverse beveled for 2 inches on the sides as well as on the cutting edge. The chisel should have a handle of soft iron 3 feet long and 1-j inches in diameter, such as can be hammered with a sledgehammer. The delicate operation of cutting is described by Bruce Drummond, who is the best American authority on the culture of the palm, as follows:

"To cut the offshoots from the tree the flat side of the chisel should always be facing the offshoot to be cut. Set the chisel well to the side of the base of the offshoot close to the main trunk. Drive it in with a sledge until below the point of union with the parent trunk; then by manipulating the handle the chisel is easily loosened and cuts its way out. Next reverse and cut from the opposite side of the shoot until the two cuts come together. This operation will in most cases sever the offshoot from the trunk. No attempt to pry the offshoot from the tree should be made, as the tissues are so brittle that the terminal bud may be ruined by checking or cracking. In cutting offshoots directly at the base of the palm the soil should be dug away until the base of the offshoot is located and enough exposed to show the point of union with the mother plant. Then the chisel can be set without danger of cutting the roots of the parent tree so much as to injure or retard its growth. The connection of the offshoot on such varieties as Deglet Nur is very small, and there is no necessity of cutting deeply into the trunk to sever the offshoot from the tree."

Once separated from its parent, the moist offshoot requires a period of seasoning before it is dry enough to be planted without danger of fermentation. Offshoots from the base of a palm are usually softer and sappier than those growing some distance above ground. The evaporation should amount to 12 or 15 per cent of the total weight, which will require at least ten to fifteen days to effect. Offshoots are usually left where cut, on the ground beneath the palm, to season.

The Arabs plant offshoots at once in their permanent locations in the orchard, but the best results will be obtained by first rooting the young plants in a shed or frame where the two necessary conditions of high temperature and high humidity can be maintained. In California this is often done cooperatively.

A common type of shed for an individual grower is 12 by 20 feet in size with side walls 6 and 7 feet high respectively, presenting a roof-slope to the sun. The sides are usually of boards covered with tarred paper and the roof of 8- or 10-ounce canvas. In such a shed on an ordinary California summer day, the temperature will be about 115° and the humidity should be about 75.

The soil inside the shed should be a light sandy loam, well drained. Ten inches of the top soil should be removed and replaced with fresh stable manure, well packed, on which 2 inches of soil should be replaced. After a thorough flooding, the bed should be allowed to steam for a week, and then be flooded again, whereupon it is ready for the offshoots. These should be planted about 8 inches deep; in any case the bud must be above danger of flooding. During the summer the bed must be flooded at least twice a week, to keep the humidity at as high a point as possible. The offshoots must be kept in it until they are thoroughly rooted and have half a dozen new leaves. This may require one year or may need several years.

The causes that may lead to failure with offshoots are summarized by Drummond as:
"(1) improper selection of the location for the nursery bed; (2) failure to construct the frame so nearly air-tight as to insure the necessary humidity and high temperature; (3) improper methods of cutting and pruning, and the neglect of seasoning before planting in the nursery-bed; and (4) the neglect of irrigation when necessary and failure to apply water properly. The points above mentioned are all essential to success, and to neglect one and observe the others may lead to as great a failure as to neglect them all." On the other hand, by using the proper care growers frequently succeed in making 90 to 95 per cent of their offshoots take root.

After they are removed to the open field, the young palms should be protected by wrapping during the following winter from the possibility of freezing, as they are tender at first. Newspaper is as good as anything for the purpose; canvas, burlap, and palm-leaves are also used.

For security, the orchardist should allow one or two male date palms for each acre of fruit bearing trees. Care should be taken to secure males that flower early in the season and yield abundant fertile pollen; sterility is common.

The female palm ordinarily blossoms between February and June (in California usually during March and April). Flowers appearing later than May 1 are not worth pollinating, so far as commercial production is concerned. Artificial pollination has been practiced since the dawn of history, and offers no difficulties.

The flowers of the two sexes can be distinguished readily (Fig. 28). The branchlets of the male inflorescence are only about 6 inches long, and are densely clustered at the end of the axis, while those of the female are several times as long and less densely clustered. The male blossoms are waxy white in color, the female more yellowish; while also the latter are much the less closely crowded together on the branchlets.

The presence of pollen in the male flower is in most cases easily to be detected by shaking a cluster of the blossoms.

As soon as the spathe containing the pollen-bearing flowers opens, it should be cut and put into a large paper bag to dry, the bag being stored, open, in a dry room. Thoroughly dry pollen will retain its vitality for many years, and a small quantity should be kept in a bottle from year to year, as a precaution. In case of need it can be used with a wad of cotton.

The pistillate flowers should be pollinated as soon as the spathes crack open, the plantation being inspected every day or two with this in view. The operation is preferably carried out about midday. The split female spathe is held open, and a sprig from the male flower gently shaken over it and then tied, open flowers downward, at the top of the female cluster. A single pollination with one sprig is enough for each cluster unless rain follows within twenty-four hours, in which case the operation should be repeated. The grower should keep the situation well in hand.

The grower must not let his young palms bear too many dates, particularly if he wants them to produce offshoots at the same time. Part of the female spadices (flower-stalks) should, therefore, be cut off. In most cases a palm may be allowed to bear its first two bunches of fruit in its fourth year, and three or four bunches in each of the next two years. If even a fullgrown palm is allowed to bear to its limit in any year, it is likely to bear less the following season.

In case the grower should find himself absolutely without date pollen at a time when his pistillate trees are flowering, he may have recourse to the pollen of some other Phoenix, or even of a different genus of palms, Chamserops, Washingtonia, or whatever it may be. This will often enable him to save part, if not all, of the crop.

Yield and Season

Most varieties of date palm, if properly cared for, will begin to bear in the fourth year, and should yield a considerable return in the fifth and succeeding years. Under Arab treatment they usually take longer. References in the Code of Hammurabi (about 2000 B.C.) indicate that the Babylonians at that time could secure a paying crop in the fourth year; if so, they were better cultivators than their modern descendants.

Beginning with two small bunches, the grower may allow his palms to bear an increasing amount each year until maximum is reached. After the fifth, sixth, or seventh year, 100 pounds or thereabouts to a tree can be maintained steadily without difficulty by most varieties, and one or two offshoots a year will still be produced, given proper fertilization and irrigation. In many cases even larger yields can be obtained. If, however, the growing palm is not given proper culture, for instance is allowed to carry a full load of offshoots, and, simultaneously, to bear all the fruit that it can, it tends to become an intermittent bearer, bringing in a large crop one year and little or nothing the next. This should be avoided by eliminating the conditions named.

The season of ripening is from May to December, depending on variety and location. Fresh dates as early as May can be secured in favored locations in Arabia, where certain early kinds are grown. They have not yet been produced so early in the United States, where the first dates do not ripen until July. In many regions very late varieties will carry fruit into mid winter. In California and at Basrah the height of the season is September; in Egypt, August; in western Arabia, July; in Algeria, September or early October. As a general rule, the dates of best quality are late in ripening and the early dates are soft varieties which must be consumed fresh as they lack the necessary amount of sugar to keep without fermenting.

American growers will find an advantage in fairly early varieties (other considerations agreeing), as the crop can thus be disposed of without competition, say before November 1, at about which time dates from Persian Gulf or North African sources can be put on the market, possibly at lower prices.

Picking and Packing

The picking process offers no particular problems, although the methods are not the same with all varieties. Usually two persons can pick together conveniently, one holding the basket and the other gathering the dates and placing them in it. Under favorable conditions, some varieties will mature a whole bunch so evenly that it can be removed entire without loss, but in many cases it is necessary to pick out the different "threads" carrying dates, and cut them separately, leaving those whose fruit is not yet mature for another day. It is advisable, with kinds that permit of it, to leave the calyx on the fruit, since if this is pulled off it opens an avenue for the entrance of insects and dirt. Bunches left to ripen on the tree frequently need to be protected by a bag of cheese-cloth or similar material, to keep off birds and insects.

Dates grown for home use need no treatment after picking unless it be a washing to remove the dust. If they are to be kept for some time, they may well be pasteurized to free them of insect eggs and the bacteria of fermentation and decay. Small quantities of fruit can be treated successfully in the oven of a cookstove, pains being taken by regulating the aperture of the door, to keep the temperature between 180° and 190° for three hours. This may slightly alter the taste; sterilization by exposure overnight to the fumes of carbon bisulfide is easy and causes no change of flavor.

There are many advantages in ripening dates artificially rather than leaving them to mature on the tree; hence some method of artificial ripening has been practiced in most date growing countries since the time of the earliest written records. Much careful experimentation has been done in this country, first by the Arizona Experiment Station and later by the United States Department of Agriculture. As a result, such simple, satisfactory, and inexpensive methods of maturing dates have been worked out that the commercial grower will do well to rely on them. The exact process differs with the variety and with the conditions under which the dates have to ripen; for the precise technique advisable in his case the grower must either refer to those who have had the experience he needs, or experiment on a few dates for himself, after he has grasped the general principles.

As W. T. Swingle points out, a date is botanically mature, or "tree ripe" as horticulturists say, as soon as it reaches full size and the seed is fully developed. At this stage, however, the date is still astringent and not eatable. Following this comes a process that may be called "ripening for eating," consisting of complex chemical transformations by which the sugars are altered and the tannin deposited in insoluble form in "giant cells." This final ripening is brought about by the combination of heat and a certain degree of humidity.

The principle underlying modern methods of artificial ripening is, therefore, to expose the dates to a constant high temperature, while holding them in the humid atmosphere which is created by the moisture they naturally give off as they dry and wrinkle.

For this purpose the dates are picked when they first begin to soften. Most varieties at this stage show translucent spots while the remainder of the berry is still hard and remains bright red or yellow in color. Dates taken from the tree in this condition will ripen successfully in three or four days if they are packed loosely, stems and all, into a tightly closed box and left at ordinary room temperature, the room being closed at night to keep out cold air. Commercial growers provide a special house, or a room built in the packing-shed for this purpose. This is so constructed as to be air-tight when closed, so that the temperature can be maintained at an even figure, without variation of more than a degree or two, by means of an electric light or a lamp with thermostat attachment such as is used in the incubators of poultrymen. Under such conditions, dates will be brought to a beautiful even maturity and practically without loss by keeping them from twenty-four to seventy-two hours at a temperature of 110° to 120°.

The skillful grower will control further the ripening of his dates by irrigation. In some climates, like that of Upper Egypt and of the Coachella Valley in some seasons, a typically "soft" date like Deglet Nur will mummify on the palm, as it matures, until it becomes a "dry" date. This can be avoided by keeping the palms well irrigated while the dates are ripening. On the other hand, "soft" varieties sometimes "go to pieces" and ferment on the tree, because of too much moisture; in this case the soil must be kept dry during the ripening season.

The packing of dates is a matter for the grower's own taste, or for standardization by the cooperative association to which he may belong. Good dates of standard varieties are usually packed in layers in one-pound cardboard boxes, like sweetmeats. In California, where home-grown dates bring fancy prices, great pains are taken with this finest quality of fruit, which is easily retailed at $1 a pound.

Most dates worth marketing in the United States are worth packing in cartons. In Arizona, berry-boxes have been used. The American standard for bulk shipment is the lug-box of 30 to 40 pounds' capacity. It is important, in any case, that the pack be uniform, both in size and variety; otherwise the grower can expect to receive only "cull" prices.

Many varieties, such as Zahidi, ripen well in the bunch and adhere indefinitely. It is probable that a profitable trade can be developed in marketing entire bunches of these, which the retail dealer can display in his store as he does a bunch of bananas. Dates of inferior quality can be worked up into various by-products, such as "date butter," or sweetmeats, or may be sold to bakers and confectioners. Culls are used in the Orient for the distillation of arrak, or as feed for live-stock. Soft early dates, which in many cases are of a beautiful color as well as delicious flavor but which lack keeping quality, probably could be sold in crates as are berries and be similarly handled as perishable fruits. Marketing should be carried on through a growers' cooperative association, which can guard the interests of all by insisting on proper standards.

For a bearing plantation with fifty palms to the acre, 100 pounds of fruit to a tree each year is a conservative estimate of the yield. This means 5000 pounds of fruit an acre each year, the retail value ranging from 2 cents a pound in the Orient to $1 a pound in the United States. Growers in the Coachella Valley have been able for some years to sell practically all the good dates they produce at 25 cents to 75 cents a pound at the plantation. Such a price is not likely to be maintained, since dates of many varieties can be grown, picked, and packed at a total cost of not more than 5 cents a pound; but there are no present indications of an early decrease in price. If it should fall to an average of 20 cents a pound, this would still allow the satisfactory gross income of $1000 an acre from fruit alone, while the offshoots of good varieties at present prices ($5 to $15 each) are a valuable factor and may be worth almost as much to the orchardist as the fruit. Offshoots, in fact, should more than pay the whole cost of running a young plantation, leaving the entire proceeds from the fruit as clear profit.

Pests and Diseases

There are two scale insects, found wherever dates grow, that are troublesome to the orchardist. The Parlatoria scale (Parlatoria blanchardii Targ, Tozz.) remains dormant during the winter but is active in summer, sucking the plant juices from the leaves at the time when growth is most vigorous. The following description of the insect is condensed from T. D. A. Cockerell: To the naked eye the scales appear as small dark gray or black specks, edged with white. If the scale is lifted by means of a pin or the point of a knife, the soft, plump and juicy female, of a rose-pink color, is found underneath. The male scales, which are rarely seen, are much smaller and narrower than those of the female. About the middle of March the female lays eggs; the larvae hatch a fortnight later, crawl about restlessly for a time, and then settle down for the remainder of their lives.

The treatment is by dipping the offshoots in a solution of 1 gallon of Cresolin, 4 gallons of distillate, and 95 gallons of water. Mature palms may be sprayed with the same mixture. By these methods this scale is eventually eliminated.

The more dangerous Marlatt scale (Phoenicococcus marlatti Ckll.) is wine-colored, and secretes a white waxy substance. It usually lives at the base of the leaves, "inside" the palm, where it is almost inaccessible, coming out at intervals to molt. It can be destroyed by dipping the offshoots and following this by periodic spraying.

Date palms in moist regions are often attacked by parasitic fungi, which, however, yield to bordeaux mixture or other standard fungicides.

In some regions the palm is attacked by a borer (Rhyncophorus) which, if not destroyed, is fatal to the tree. The only successful treatment seems to be to watch for the intruder and kill it before it has penetrated too far. Locusts, grasshoppers, rats, gophers, ants, bees, wasps, birds, and the like give trouble in various localities. The treatment resorted to against these pests in connection with other cultures will also serve for the date palm orchard.

Stored dates are likely to become infested with such common enemies of stored foods as the fig-moth (Ephestia cautella Walker) and the Indian meal-moth (Plodia interpundella Hiibner) , The best protection against these is a packing-house that is reasonably insect-proof and is fumigated at the beginning of each season. The modern methods of preparing dates for the market usually include some system of disinfection which kills insect eggs. It is reported that in Egypt dates for export are dipped in dilute alcohol, or in alcohol and glycerine. "Dry" dates can be scalded; "soft" dates are, in America, frequently pasteurized by dry heat or by fumigation.

Varieties and Classification

Several thousand varieties of dates have been recognized, but those which have any commercial importance are limited to a few score, while those that are of real merit number only a few dozen, since many kinds owe their reputation not to excellence of flavor but, as do the Elberta peach and the Ben Davis apple, to good shipping and keeping qualities.

Varieties are usually classified as "soft" (or "wet") and "dry," Orientals classify them by color (yellow or red, before they are cured); by keeping quality; and as "hot" and "cold," according to whether a long-continued diet of them "burns" the stomach or not.

The classification of "soft" and "dry" (which sometimes has been complicated and confused by the insertion of an inter mediate class of "semi-dry") is commercially convenient, but not absolute; for practically any soft date may become a dry date under certain atmospheric conditions, and most dry dates can be made soft by proper management and artificial maturation.

The dry dates predominate in most parts of North Africa, including Egypt, being preferred by the nomads because they are easily packed and not likely to spoil. On the other hand, practically all of the dates which the world recognizes as valuable are soft varieties. In the following list, which includes the most important kinds from throughout the world, there is only one unmistakably dry date (Thuri), which, though recognized as good in its Algerian home, is given a place in this list mainly because it has succeeded particularly well in Calirfornia. There are three others (Asharasi, Kasbeh, and Zahidi) that would probably be considered dry, but cannot be unequivocably placed in that class. Asharasi and Kasbeh are much softer than the typical dry date, while Zahidi at one stage of its maturity is typically soft, and is widely sold in that condition, although if left long enough on the palm it becomes actually a dry date. All the other varieties in the list are typically soft, but most, if not all, of them will be converted into dry dates if left to ripen on the trees in a sufficiently hot and dry climate.

The American and European markets are accustomed only to soft dates, and as most of the good varieties are soft, growers will naturally give attention to soft kinds by preference. A market for dry dates, in America at least, will have to be created before any large quantity can be sold. Nevertheless, Americans who have eaten good dry dates usually like them, and frequently consider them preferable to those soft dates, such as Halawi and Khadhrawi, which (often under the trade name of Golden Dates) have until recently been almost the only varieties on the American market.

Amri. — Form oblong, broadest slightly above the center and bluntly pointed at the apex; size very large, length 2 to 2½ inches, breadth 1 to 1¼ inches; surface deep reddish brown in color, coarsely wrinkled; skin thick, not adhering to the flesh throughout; flesh about I inch thick, coarse, fibrous, somewhat sticky, and with much rag close to the seed; flavor sweet, but not delicate; seed oblong, I¼ to 1½ inches long, rough, with the ventral channel broad and shallow, and the germ-pore nearer base than apex. Season late.
More extensively exported from Egypt than any other variety. It is not, however, a first-class date. It is large and attractive in appearance, but inferior in flavor. The keeping and shipping qualities are unusually good. Named probably from Amr, a common personal name.

Asharasi. — Form ovate to oblong-ovate, broadest near the base and pointed at the apex; size medium, length 11/8 to 13/8 inches, breadth 1/8 to I¼ inches; surface hard, rough, straw-colored around the base, translucent brownish amber toward the apex; skin dry, thin, coarsely wrinkled; flesh ¼ inch thick, at basal end of fruit hard, opaque, creamy white in color, toward tip becoming translucent amber, firm; flavor rich, sweet, and nutty; seed oblong-elliptic, pointed at apex, 5/8 to ¾ inch long, smooth, the ventral channel almost closed, and the germ-pore nearer base than apex. Ripens midseason.

Syn. Ascherasi. The best dry date of Mesopotamia, if not of the world. It can be used as a soft date; having always some translucent flesh at the apical end of the fruit, it has by some writers been classed as semi-dry. Grown principally in the vicinity of Baghdad; now also in the United States, where it succeeds well. The name means Tall-growing.

Deglet Nur. — Form slender oblong to oblong-elliptic, widest near the center and rounded at the apex; size large, length 1½ to I¼ inches, breadth ¾ to 7/8 inch; surface smooth or slightly wrinkled, maroon in color; skin thin, often separating from the flesh in loose folds; flesh ¼ inch thick, deep golden-brown in color, soft and melting, conspicuously translucent ; flavor delicate, mild, very sweet; seed oblong-elliptie, pointed at both ends, about 1 inch long, with the ventral channel shallow and partly closed, the germ-pore at center. Season late.

Syns. Deglet Noor, Deglet en-Nour. This variety is considered the finest grown in Algeria and Tunisia, where its commercial cultivation is extensive, and it is highly esteemed in California, where it holds at present first rank among dates planted commercially. Its defects are a tendency to ferment if kept for several months, and the immense amount of heat required to mature it properly. The name is properly transliterated Daqlet al-Nur, meaning Date of the Light, an allusion to its translucency.

Fardh. — Form oblong, widest near the middle and rounded at the apex; size small to medium, length about I¼ inches, breadth about ¾ inch; surface shining, deep dark brown in color, almost smooth; skin rather thin, tender; flesh 1/8 to ¼ inch thick, firm, russet brown; flavor sweet with a rather strong after-taste; seed small, length 5/8 inch. Ripens midseason.

Syn. Fard. This is the great commercial date of Oman, in eastern Arabia. It has recently been planted in California; American markets are thoroughly familiar with the fruit through the large importations which are annually made from Oman. While inferior in quality to many other varieties, Fardh holds its shape well when packed and keeps well. For these reasons it is a valuable commercial variety. According to modern Omani etymologists, the name means The Separated, because of the way the dates are arranged in the bunch; but the ancients, who are entitled to more credit, spell it in a way that means The Apportioned.

Ghars. — Form oblong to obovate, narrowest near the rounded apex; size large to very large, length 1½ to 2 inches, breadth about 7/8 inch; surface somewhat shining, bay colored; skin soft and tender; flesh 3/8 inch thick, soft, sirupy, slightly translucent; flavor sweet and rich; seed oblong, ¾ to 1 inch long, with the ventral channel deep and sometimes closed near the middle, and the germ-pore at center. Season early.

Syns. Rhars, R'ars. One of the commonest soft dates in North Africa, esteemed for its earliness in ripening, its productiveness, and the ability of the plant to resist large amounts of alkali and much neglect. In California it has proved to be a strong grower, but the fruit is not so good as that of several other varieties, and also ferments easily. The name means Vigorous Grower.

Halawi. — Form slender-oblong to oblong-ovate, broadly pointed or blunt at the apex; size large, length 1¼ to I¾ inches, breadth about I inch; surface slightly rough, translucent bright golden-brown in color; skin thin but rather tough; flesh 1/8 to 3/16 inch thick, firm, goldenamber in color, tender; flavor sweet and honey-like, but not rich; seed slender oblong, 7/8 inch long, with the ventral channel broadly open. Ripens midseason.

This is the great commercial date of Mesopotamia, and probably the most important variety in the world, as regards quantity sold. It is grown chiefly around Basrah, at the head of the Persian Gulf. It has good keeping and shipping qualities, but is not esteemed by the Arabs for eating; in American markets, however, it is preferred to several other varieties because of its attractive color. Both in California and in Arizona Halawi has succeeded remarkably well. The name means The Sweet.

Hayani. — Form oblong-elliptic, broadest slightly below the center and rounded at the apex; size very large, length 2 to 2½ inches, breadth 1 to 1¾ inches; surface dark brown in color, smooth; skin thick, separating readily from the flesh; flesh about ¼ inch thick, light brown in color, soft; flavor sweet, lacking richness; seed oblong, sometimes narrowed toward the apex, 1¼ to 13/8 inches long, with the ventral channel broad and deep, and the germ-pore usually 3/8 inch from the base. Ripens midseason.

Syns. Hayany, Birket al Hajji, Birket el Haggi, Birket el Hadji, and Birkawi. One of the most satisfactory Egyptian dates in California and Arizona. It is precocious and prolific, and has proved to be more frost-resistant than many other varieties. The plant is unusually ornamental in appearance. The variety is named after the village of Hayan.

Kasbeh. — Form oblong-ovate, widest near the base and broadly pointed at the apex; size large, about I¾ inches long, ¾ inch broad; surface golden-brown to chestnut in color; skin thin but fairly tough; flesh 3/16 inch thick, firm, but never hard, tender; flavor sweet, slightly heavy but not cloying; seed oblong-elliptic, almost an inch long, the ventral channel open and deep, the germ-pore nearer base than apex. Season late.

Syns. Kesba, Kessebi, El Kseba. A variety of ancient origin, extensively cultivated in Algeria and Tunisia. Before Deglet Nur came into the field it was considered the finest date in North Africa. It is valued in California, where it has been found to have excellent keeping and shipping qualities as well as good flavor. The name means The Profitable.

Khadhrawi. — Form oblong to oblong-elliptic, widest near the center and broadly pointed at the apex; size medium to large, length 1¼ to 1¾ inches, breadth ¾ to 7/8 inch; surface translucent orange-brown in color, overspread with a thin blue-gray blue; skin firm, rather tough; flesh, 3/16 to ¼ inch thick, firm, translucent, amber-brown in color; flavor rich, never cloying; seed oblong-obovate to oblongelliptic, I inch long, the ventral channel narrow or almost closed. Ripens midseason.

Syns. Khadrawi, Khudrawee. One of the most important commercial varieties of Mesopotamia, ranking second only to Halawi. It is a better date than the latter, but not so highly esteemed on the American market because of its slightly darker color. In California it has been grown with great success. The name means The Verdant.

Khalaseh. — Form oblong to oblong-ovate, broadest near the center and rounded to broadly pointed at the apex; size medium, length 13/8 to 15/8 inches, breadth ¾ to 7/8 inch; surface smooth, orange-brown to reddish amber in color, with a satiny sheen; skin firm, but tender; flesh ¼ inch thick, firm, tender, reddish amber in color, free from fiber; fiavor delicate, with the characteristic date taste in a desirable degree; seed oblong-elliptic, pointed at both ends, ¾ to 7/8 inch long, the ventral channel almost closed. Ripens midseason.

Syns. Khalasa, Khalasi, Khalas. The most famous date of the Persian Gulf region, and unquestionably one of the finest in the world. It is grown principally at Hofhuf in the district of Hasa; a few palms have been planted in the United States, and have produced fruit of superior quality. Khalaseh likes a dry situation and sandy soil. It is not a heavy bearer, but is precocious. The name means Quintessence.

Khustawi. — Form oblong-oval, broadest near center and rounded at apex; size small to medium, length 1 to 1½ inches, breadth ¾ to 7/8 inch; surface smooth, glossy, translucent orange-brown in color; skin thin and delicate; flesh ¼ inch thick, soft and delicate in texture, translucent golden-brown in color; flavor unusually rich yet not cloying, with the characteristic date taste in a desirable degree; seed oblong-obovate, ¾ inch long, pointed at both ends, with the ventral channel open. Ripens midseason.

Syns. Khastawi, Kustawi, originally Khastawani (Persian). A delicious dessert date from Baghdad. It has proved well adapted to conditions in the date-growing regions of America. It is not a heavy bearer, but the fruit possesses good keeping qualities. The name means The Date of the Grandees.

Majhul. — Form broadly oblong to oblong-ovate, broadest at center to slightly nearer base and broadly pointed at apex; size very large, length 2 inches, breadth 1¼ inches; surface wrinkled, deep reddish brown in color; skin thin and tender; flesh 3/8 inch thick, firm, meaty, brownish amber in color, translucent, with no fiber around seed; flavor rich and delicious; seed elliptic, 1¼ inches long, with the germpore nearest the base and the ventral channel almost closed. Season late.

Syns. Medjool, Medjeheul. A variety of large size and good keeping qualities, from the Tafilalet oases in the Moroccan Sahara, whence the fruit is exported to Europe. Probably suited only to the hottest and driest regions in the United States. The name means Unknown.

Maktum. — Form broadly oblong to oblong-obovate, usually broadest near center and rounded at the apex; size medium, length 1½ to 1¼ inches, breadth 7/8 to 1 inch; surface somewhat glossy, translucent golden-brown in color; skin firm, wrinkled, rather thin; flesh 3/8 to 5/8 inch thick, soft, almost melting, light golden-brown in color; flavor mild, sweet, similar to that of Deglet Nur. Season late.

Syn. Maktoom, originally Makdum. A rare variety from Mesopotamia which has proved admirably adapted to conditions in California, although not resistant to frost. It is large and of fine quality. The palm is a vigorous grower. The name means The Bitten.

Manakhir. — Form oblong, rounded at the apex; size very large, length 2 to 2¼ inches, breadth slightly more than 1 inch; surface smooth, brownish maroon in color, with a purplish bloom; skin thin and tender; flesh ¼ inch thick, soft and melting, with fiber around the seed; flavor delicate, resembling that of Deglet Nur; seed oblong, 1 inch long, with the germ-pore nearer the base and the ventral channel frequently closed. Season late.

Syns. Menakher, Monakhir. A rare and large-fruited variety from Tunis, of which only a few palms exist in the United States. In this country it is not a date of the best quality. The name means The Nose Date.

Saidi. — Form oblong-ovate, broadest near the base and blunt at the apex; size large, length 1½ inches, breadth about 1 inch; surface almost smooth, brownish maroon in color, overspread with a bluish bloom; skin thin, tender; flesh 3/16 inch thick, red-brown in color, firm; flavor very sweet, almost cloying; seed oblong-elliptic, 7/8 inch long, the germ-pore slightly nearer the base and the ventral channel almost closed. Ripens in midseason.

Syns. Saidy, Wahi. One of the most important varieties of Upper Egypt. It is not considered so good in quality as some of the Algerian and Mesopotamian varieties, but it is a heavy bearer, though it requires a hot climate to ripen perfectly. The name indicates that it comes from Said or Upper Egypt.

Tabirzal. — Form broadly oblong-obovate, broadest below center and broadly pointed at the apex; size medium, length 11/8 to 1½ inches, breadth 7/8 to 11/8 inches; surface translucent deep orange-brown in color, with a blue-gray bloom; skin thin and tender, coarsely wrinkled ; flesh ¼ inch thick, soft and tender, translucent orange-brown in color; flavor distinctive, mild and pleasant, sweet but not cloying; seed broadly oblong, 5/8 to ¾ inch long, with the ventral channel narrow. Season late.

One of the best dates grown at Baghdad. In the United States it is little known as yet. Originally Tabirzad (Persian) meaning Sugar Candy.

Thuri. — Form oblong, broadest near center and bluntly pointed at apex; size large, length I¾ inches, breadth ¾ inch; surface reddish chestnut color, overspread with a bluish bloom; skin thin; flesh 3/16 inch thick, firm and nearly dry but not hard or brittle, golden-brown in color; flavor sweet, nutty and delicate; seed oblong, 1 inch long, the ventral channel deep and partly closed, the germ-pore nearer the base. A midseason date.

Syns. Thoory, Tsuri. One of the best Algerian dry dates. It is large, not too hard, and of excellent flavor ; the palm bears heavily and the clusters are of exceptional size. In California it has proved very satisfactory. The name means The Bull's Date.

Zahidi. — Form oblong-obovate, broadest near the rounded apex ; size medium, length 1¼ inches, breadth 7/8 inch; surface smooth, glossy, translucent golden-yellow in color, sometimes golden-brown; skin rather thick and tough; flesh ¼ inch thick, translucent golden-yellow close to the skin, whitish near the seed, soft, meaty, and full of sirup; flavor sweet, sugary, and not at all cloying; seed oblong, ¾ inch long, the ventral channel open. Season early.

Syns. Zehedi, Zadie, originally Azadi (Persian). A remarkable date, the principal commercial variety of Baghdad. It can be used as a soft date (as described above) or as a dry date, depending on the length of time it is allowed to remain on the palm. The tree is vigorous, hardy, resistant to drought, and prolific in fruiting. The name means Nobility.

¹ Malesia, iii
¹ S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 28.