From NewCROP TM, Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University
by Charles R. Clement
Pejibaye
1. Common Names
2. Scientific Name
3. Uses
4. Origin
5. Crop Status
6. Botany
7. Crop Culture
8. Germplasm
9. Key References
10. Selected Experts
Common Names
English: pejibaye, peach palm
Brazil: pupunha
Colombia: chontaduro
Costa Rica: pejibaye
Ecuador: chontaduro, chontaruro
Peru: pijuayo
Native American languages: at least 300 names, some of which are variations on pejibaye, gasipaes, or pupunha.
Scientific Name
Species: Bactris gasipaes Kunth
Family: Palmae or Arecaceae
Synonyms: Bactris speciosa Martius, Guilielma gasipaes (HBK) LHBailey and numerous others
 | | A four-year-old, two-stemmed plant large enough to become reproductive. |
Uses
Palmito
or palm heart, a gourmet vegetable with an expanding world market, is
the only pejibaye product currently grown on a commercial scale. The
apical and basal residue from palmito extraction also have potential
use. The basal residue just below the apical meristem, is very tender
and has a crispy texture. This could be made into cream soup or be
thin-sliced (transversally) as a substitute for bamboo shoots, or deep
fried to make chips. The apical residue is slightly fibrous leaf and
petiole material, which can be used as a vegetable.
Traditionally,
pejibaye is grown for its fruits. Fruits are boiled in salted water for
30 to 60 minutes to eliminate the irritating oxalate crystals and
trypsin inhibitor. Pejibaye are frequently consumed at breakfast, or as
an appetizer before meals. The cooked fruits are used whole in stews,
or ground to a flour for use in a variety of preparations and pastries.
The flavor of pejibaye fruit, depend on the carotenoid content, range
from a distinctive bland to strong flavor. Some compare the flavors to
that of potato or maize; some described it as sweet, and others say it
resembles the flavor of the European chestnut. The described texture of
cooked pehibaye range from that of a soggy potato to that of a good raw
cashew (Anacardium occidentale
L.). Low starch types generally being soggy and starchy, while low
moisture types are more floury and crunchy. In Costa Rica the 'best'
fruit are dry and starchy with a nutty texture; in Manaus the 'best'
fruit are firm, less starchy and with a moderate oil level. Pejibaye
fruits are available raw, in brine (Costa Rica) or dehydrated
(Colombia).
Pejibaye flour was one of the alternative products
developed by the Amerindians from the domesticated Putumayo and Vaupes
'macrocarpa' landraces of pejibaye. These landraces have larger fruit,
extremely high starch and low oil levels, which is excellent for making
flour. The pejibaye flour is similar to that of yellow cassava and
maize flour, and could substitute these in both bread and cake recipes.
When wheat flour is mixed with 10% pejibaye, the bread dough has
excellent baking characteristics, with slightly less protein but higher
energy (from the oil) and vitamin A (beta-carotene) content. When a mix
of 85% wheat and 15% pejibaye is used, the dough is slightly heavier
and similar to a 'natural' whole wheat bread. In the Manaus region,
some pejibaye flours, with higher oil content, can be used successfully
in cake recipes without any wheat flour.
The more primitive
landraces, such as the 'microcarpa' group, have higher oil contents
than those selected by the Amerindians. Some fruits were found to
contain 62% oil in the dry mesocarp and 34% oil on bunch weight.
Pejibaye oil contains more unsaturated fatty acids than palm oil, and
the high quality meal after oil extraction, is suitable for humans use
or as animal feed. The suggested yield is between 2-3 t/ha/yr of oil
and could easily be raised to 5 or more tons in an improvement program.
In
many areas of the humid tropics, cereals do not yield well without
considerable amounts of input and know how. The use of dried pejibaye
fruit as partial or complete substitutes for maize as animal ration is
the major alternative use being studied. By using the culled fruit and
heat extrusion to deactivate the trypsin inhibitor, a cheaper meal was
used to substitute 30 to 60% of the maize in both starter and primary
chicken rations.
 | | A 10 kg fruit bunch from the Benjamin Constant population of the Putumayo landrace know for its large (60-200 g), starchy fruit. |
Origin
Bactris
(Jacq. ex Scop.) contains 250+ species, distributed in three subgenera,
one with three sections and one with an additional subsection, all
restricted to the Neotropics. The pejibaye is included within the
subgenus Guilielma, which contains 3-8 species. The subgenus Guilielma is the pejibaye's secondary gene pool (GP-2). It contains a maximum of: B. caribea, B. ciliata, B. dahlgreniana, B. insignis, B. jamaicana, B. macana, and B. setulosa.
All undomesticated species are small fruited (1-10, rarely 20 g) with
large numbers of fruit/bunch (400-1500), but vegetatively similar to
pejibaye (especially those in southwestern Amazonia), and occur
allopatrically in northwestern South America, except for B. jamaicana
from the Caribbean. These species, and the spontaneous populations of
pejibaye, occur principally in disturbed ecosystems, along river edges,
in forest gaps, etc. They require full sun to fruit; in its absence
they may survive in the forest but do not reproduce. Local populations
of pejibaye may hybridize with members of this gene pool. The tertiary
gene pool (GP-3) includes all other members of the genus. Species of
the subgenus Bactris sensu stricto may also hybridize naturally with pejibaye.
The
origin of pejibaye is still being debated. Mora Urpí (1992) argues for
a polyphyletic origin, with numerous local domestications throughout
the GP-2 range. Clement (1988) argues that a monophyletic origin is
more likely and that the observed variations originated through
Amerindian selection, germplasm migration, adaptation to a wide range
of environments and introgression with GP-2 and GP-3 species. In this
case, the species was probably domesticated in southwestern Amazonia,
where the most similar Guilielmas occur, principally B. ciliata, B. dahlgreniana, and B. insignis, one of which may be the progenitor.
Crop Status
The
heart of palm and the fruit are the reasons for the current interest in
pejibaye. Processing technology for the pejibaye palmito has been
developed in Costa Rica and in Brazil. During the 1980s, more than 5000
ha were planted for heart of palm. Costa Rica is the leader in this
agro-industry, but Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru are planting
rapidly. During the period 1980-90 pejibaye heart of palm captured 20%
of the four million dollar U.S. market and nearly as much of the US$30
million European market. World heart of palm commerce exceeded US$40
million in 1990, mostly extracted from wild populations of the genus Euterpe in the estuary of the Amazon river, which is devastating the natural populations.
Most
pejibayes are spiny, both on the trunk and on the leaf petiole and
rachis, which complicates extraction of the palmito. Several spineless
populations have been found in western Amazonia, especially around
Yurimaguas, Peru and Costa Rica. Reported yield of market quality
pejibaye palmito were between 0.9 to 1.2 t/ha. With selected germplasm
and good agronomic practices it may be possible to attain nearly 2
t/ha/yr of market quality palmito.
Fruit production was reported
between 6 to 25 t/ha/yr of fresh bunches from non-selected germplasm,
at US$ 0.50-1.00 per kilogram for the best quality fruit. Long-term
potential uses for pejibaye fruits include direct human consumption; as
a substitution for maize and sorghum in animal feed in the tropics; as
a source of vegetable oil, and as flour for confectioneries, breads and
beverages. Use of pejibaye as a productive shade should also be
considered throughout the humid tropics for cacao and coffee
plantations.
Botany
Bactris gasipaes
(Kunth) has 2n = 2x = 28 (Mora Urpí 1984). The pejibaye is extremely
variable morphologically, especially for fruit morphology and
composition and spine characteristics. The pejibaye is an allogamous,
caespitose palm. The stem internodes are generally heavily armed with
thin, strong black spines of different sizes, although there are some
populations which have been selected by the Amerindians for
spinelessness. Stem diameter varies from 12 to 30 cm. Stem internode
length varies from 5 to 40 cm during the early years, after which it
becomes progressively reduced to about 1 to 2 cm in older plants, as
these change from a purely vegetative to a fully reproductive phase.
The plant may attain heights of 15 to 20 m quite rapidly, which is a
major problem for fruit harvesting.
The leaves are pinnate,
generally with a spiny petiole and rachis, and frequently spiny leaflet
veins and edges. The mature leaf petiole ranges from 100 to 200 cm in
length, while the mature leaf rachis ranges from 100 to 300 cm, and the
whole frond curves downward with age. The induplicate leaflets number
from 100 to 300 and are arranged in groups of 2 to 8 along the rachis,
with each leaflet inserted at a different angle within the group,
giving the frond a "shaggy" appearance. Leaflets range from 50 to 120
cm in length and 20 to 60 mm in width. Leaf area ranges from 2 to 6 m
sq and leaf biomass from 0.7 to 1.2 kg. The inflorescences are
monoecious, arising in the axil of each leaf and becoming visible as
the leaf enters senescence. The inflorescence peduncle varies from 30
to 60 cm in length, and the rachis from 20 to 50 cm, with between 20
and 80 flower-bearing rachilla. Each rachilla has several to more than
two dozen pistillate flowers and several hundred to more than a
thousand staminate flowers. The inflorescence may contain anywhere from
25 to 1,200 pistillate and 10,000 to 30,000 staminate flowers. Although
there is the potential of one inflorescence in each axil, this is
rarely realized, since drought, poor plant nutrition, excessive yield
in the previous year and other, as yet undetermined factors can cause
abortion. Flowers are mostly pollinated by insects of Derelomus and Phylotrox species. Pejibaye may be partially or completely self-incompatible.
Crop Culture
Pejibaye
is well adapted to a wide variety of environments, fruiting from 0-900+
m a.s.l., with 1500-8000 mm of rainfall and 0-6 month dry seasons, on
nutrient poor Oxisols and Ultisols to nutrient rich Alfisols, but
requiring full sun and well-drained sites. Seed should be obtained from
plants selected for desirable fruit characteristics, high yield and
spinelessness. The seeds should be germinated in loam substrate beds;
if local soil pathogens are a problem, pure sand mulched with sawdust
should be used. Fifty percent shade is recommended during germination
and early nursery growth. Germination takes 60 to 120 days. At the two
leaf stage, the seedlings are transplanted into 2 kg black plastic
nursery bags. This is recommended because root damage from bare-root
planting or other root disturbance in the juvenile stage can result in
poor field establishment. The plantlets should be hardened at about
40-50 cm tall, 4-6 months after transplanting.
For monoculture
plantations, 5x5 m spacing is recommended on poor soils and 6x6 m on
rich soils. Contour planting is recommended and steep slopes should be
avoided. A good planting pit of 40 cm minimum in all dimensions is
prepared for each plant one month before planting. Each pit is
partially filled with animal manure, organic refuse and about 100 g of
P with topsoil. A catch basin should be formed at the downhill side of
the planting pit. Seedlings are planted with the adventitious root
crown just about 10 cm below soil surface. Field planting should be
done at the start of the rainy season. Weed control is important during
the first two rainy seasons, this should be done with as little
disturbance of the soil as possible, as pejibaye roots are shallow and
are easily damaged physically or by herbicides. Pouraria phasealoids
and Desmodium ovatifolium ground covers are recommended. During the
first two years, young plants should be side-dressed with 25 g of
nitrogen fertilizer during the middle and end of the rainy season. At
about 2 to 4 years, a single stemmed plant requires approximately 200 g
P, 150 g N and K, and 50 g Mg. The phosphate and magnesium should be
applied at the beginning of the rainy season and at intervals of two or
three months, since phosphorus is the most limiting factor in the
tropics. The liberal use of manures, organic wastes and leguminous
covers should address the micro-nutrient requirements during early
establishment of the field. Long-term management of the plantation will
require occasional plantation renewal, when the plants become too tall
for economic harvesting of the fruit. Plants should be managed to have
one principal fruiting stem and a single lateral stem for renewal. Upon
cutting the principal stem, generally at 10-15 years, its palmito can
be extracted and its wood exploited. This form of management will give
periodic harvests of palmito and wood to supplement the farmer's diet
and income, and will occur in both monoculture and agroforestry
systems. After renewal, the new reproductive stem will take 2-3 years
to start fruiting.
For pejibaye palmito production, planting
space should be about 1.5x1.5 m. The first harvest is done when 2-5
internodes are visible on the trunk, which is about two years after
field planting. Three to four shoots are retained per mat for maximum
palmito yield, and one per mat for best palmito size.
Until
recently the pejibaye has been relatively free of pests and diseases,
principally because it has been a low density agro-forestry component
rather than a monoculture. Several diseases attack the fruit, generally
after an initial insect has caused lesion. Phytophthera has been
identified as an occasional problem in Costa Rica and may be expected
to spread, especially in poorly managed and fertilized plantations.
Leaf mites attack certain genotypes in some areas. Coleoptera and
Diptera fruit and seed borers are frequently found. A Coleoptera seed
borer has recently been found in Rondonia (Brazil) that eliminated
nearly 100% of the yield in one small area. In Manaus, poor plant
nutrition and a prolonged drought weakened the plants and opened the
way for several Coleoptera, Diptera and Hemiptera which eliminated
85-90% of the expected harvest in 1988.
Germplasm
INPA-CENARGEN - Manaus, Brazil (450 accessions).
Sec. Agric. del Valle - Buenaventura, Colombia (400).
Corp. Araracuara - Araracuara, Colombia (100).
Corp. Araracuara - San Jose, Guaviare, Colombia (100).
Univ. Costa Rica - Guapiles, Costa Rica (950).
CATIE - Turrialba, Costa Rica (400).
INIAP - Napo-Payamino, Ecuador (320).
MIDINRA - El Recreo, Nicaragua (30).
IDIAP - Las Pavas, Panama (50).
INIPA - Iquitos, Peru (200).
INIPA - Yurimaguas, Peru (140).
Germplasm
is available from most countries on an exchange basis between
institutions. Private individuals looking for seed should contact the
national germplasm bank and ask for local commercial sources.
Key References
Clement, C.R. 1995. Pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes). In: Smartt, J. and N.W. Simmonds (eds). Evolution of Crop Plants, 2nd Ed. Longman, London. (in press)
Clement,
C.R. 1990. Pejibaye. In: Nagy, S., P.E. Shaw and W. Wardowski (eds).
Fruits of Tropical and Subtropical Origin: Composition, Properties,
Uses. Florida Science Source, Lake Alfred, Florida. pp. 302-321.
Clement, C.R. 1989. The potential use of the pejibaye palm in agroforestry systems. Agroforestry Systems 7:201-212.
Clement,
C.R. and D.B. Arkcoll. 1989. The pejibaye palm: economic potential and
research priorities. In: Wickens, G., N. Haq and P. Day (eds). New
Crops for Food and Industry. Chapman & Hall, New York. pp. 304-322.
Mora
Urpí, J. 1992. Pejibaye. In: Hernández Bermejo, J.E. and J. León (eds).
Cultivos Marginados - otra perspectiva de 1492. FAO Plant Production
and Protection Collection 26, Rome. pp. 209-219.
Mora Urpí, J. 1984. El pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes
H.B.K.): origin, biología floral y manejo agronómico. In: Palmeras poco
conocidas de América Tropical, FAO/CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica. pp.
118-160.
Mora Urpí, J, E. Vargas, C.A. Lopez, M. Villaplana, G. Allon and C. Blanco. 1984. The pejibaye palm (Bactris gasipaes HBK). FAO, San José (Costa Rica)
Mora
Urpí, J., L.T. Szott, M. Murillo and V.M. Patiño (eds). 1993. IV
Congresso Internacional sobre Biologia, Agronomia e Industrialización
del Pijuayo. Editorial Univ. Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
Selected Experts
Charles
R. Clement, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia - INPA,
69011-920 Manaus, AM, Brasil. tel. (55-92) 643-3377; fax (55-92)
643-3440; e-mail - cclement@cr-am.rnp.br
Jorge Mora Urpí, Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jos‚, Costa Rica. fax (506) 224-9367.
Mario
H. Pinedo P., Estacion Experimental Agricola San Roque, INIAA, Apdo.
609, Iquitos, Loreto, Peru. fax. (51-94) 23 56
31.
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